Chapter 1: Approaches to Understanding Behaviour
Chapter Outline
The Nature of Psychology and the IB Psychology Course
Essential Questions
What is psychology?
Why does psychology take different approaches to understand behaviour?
Myths and Misconceptions
Psychology helps people with mental problems
Studying psychology over the next two years you will help you realise that psychology is everywhere. The subject is diverse and helping people with mental disorders is only one aspect of this science. Other topics include developmental psychology, sports psychology, health psychology, the psychology of human relationships and organisational psychology. (See the American Psychological Association - http://www.apa.org/action/science/index.aspx for a description of the major branches of the subject.)
We only use about 10% of our brains
Modern research has debunked (debunked = shown to be false) this popular idea that we do not make full use of our brains. See this article from Medical News Today: How much of our brain do we actually use? Brain facts and myths.
Everything we experience is recorded in our brains
We do not replay a recording of events when we wish to recall events or information. Research demonstrates that we reconstruct the past. Our memories are not fixed recordings of our lives.
An Inspiring Story
In 2012, a young girl and her friends were travelling home from school on their school bus when there was a sudden bang and one of the girls fell to the ground. The other girls turned and saw a man with a mask.
What do you think happened to the girl? Why was she attacked?
As you read the story, what image did you have of the girl and the environment? Was it in your town or another town in your country? What conclusions did you arrive at? What other information would you have liked?
This story is actually one of Malala Yousafzai.
On 9 October 2012, Malala and her friends were travelling home from school when a masked gunman boarded their bus and fired a single bullet. It passed through Malala’s head, neck and shoulder. Malala survived this attack.
In 2012, Malala Yousafzai and her friends were travelling home from school when a masked gunman boarded their bus and fired a single bullet. It passed through Malala’s head, neck and shoulder. Malala survived this attack.
Why had terrorists tried to kill her? Did the gunman object to her belief girls had the right to an education? Was her death ordered because she wrote a blog about her life in Pakistan or because she received Pakistan's first National Youth Peace Prize?
Malala was not intimidated, and she set up the Malala Fund to support international efforts to educate girls.
In December 2014, Malala accepted the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize; it’s youngest ever winner.
Malala’s experiences – her campaign to educate girls, her attempted killing, her recovery and her later fame – raise many questions.
Can psychologists explain why she challenged powerful people who opposed her beliefs on education? Are there psychological theories about the role of family and social and cultural environments to explain her actions? Can psychologists make sense of the violent behaviour of her attacker? Did your image and impression of the way you pictured the story change? All these questions are explored in Psychology and as you study psychology over the rest of the course think back on Malala’s inspiring story.
1. What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Compared to philosophy and physics, psychology is a relatively new subject with William Wundt credited with opening the first laboratory in 1879.
Since then, psychologists have asked questions about why people behave the way they do. Does our brain control our behaviour? How similar are we to our parents? Are we social beings who need others to live?
Psychologists use scientific methods to answer these and hundreds of other questions. They investigate people’s biology, their thoughts and their social and cultural environments. To do this they use a variety of techniques from brain imaging technologies like MRI scans to conducting experiments in laboratories, field studies, interviews and observing people as they carry on in their daily activities. Psychologists are keen observers of behaviour and skilled at asking people about their thoughts and actions. The knowledge generated can bring positive changes to people’s lives.
2. What is IB Psychology?
Psychology has come a long way since the days of Wundt. We no longer believe personality is determined by the shape of the skulls or mental illnesses can be treated by removing parts of the brain.
Human behaviour is extraordinarily complex and no one approach can explain it all. Modern psychology, therefore, takes various approaches in researching behaviour and that is reflected in the syllabus of the IB Psychology Course.
Your first major topic in the course is Approaches to Research. Understanding how psychologists generate knowledge acts as a foundation for your study of the Core and the Options. The ethical treatment of animals and humans is an important consideration.
Syllabus components
Core
Biological approach to understanding behaviour
the relationship between the brain and behaviour (SL and HL)
hormones and pheromones and their effects on behaviour (SL and HL)
the relationship between genetics and behaviour (SL and HL)
the role of animal research in understanding human behaviour (HL only)
Cognitive approach to understanding behaviour
cognitive processing (SL and HL)
reliability of cognitive processes (SL and HL)
emotion and cognition (SL and HL)
cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world (HL only)
Sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour
the individual and the group (SL and HL)
cultural origins of behaviour and cognition (SL and HL)
cultural influences on individual behaviour (SL and HL)
the influence of globalization on individual behaviour (HL only)
Relevant to all the topics are:
the contribution of research methods to understanding human behaviour
ethical considerations in investigations of human behaviour
Approaches to researching behaviour
Research methods
Elements of research behaviour
Analyzing data
Evaluating research
Drawing conclusions
Options
Abnormal psychology
factors influencing diagnosis
etiology of abnormal psychology
treatment of disorders
Psychology of human relationships
personal relationships
group dynamics
social responsibility
Applicable to all three topics within the options
The integration of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour
Research methods used to understand behaviour
Ethical considerations
Internal assessment
Experimental study
Bringing positive changes to people’s lives is the focus of the Options. SL students study Abnormal Psychology. HL students study Abnormal Psychology and the Psychology of Human Relationships.
As you can see in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 below, the approaches are studied one after the other. However, all of these approaches contribute insights into understanding behaviour and you should take a holistic perspective (holistic = emphasising the importance of the whole).
Table 1.1 SL Syllabus
Table 1.2 HL Syllabus
Approaches to Researching Behaviour
Psychologists use both quantitative and qualitative approaches to researching behaviour. Each approach has its advantages and limitations which must be considered when evaluating how a research study contributes to the understanding of behaviour. Asking questions, challenging assumptions and critically assessing the methods used by researchers are important skills.
An understanding of approaches to research is also important for your internal assessment task as you will be required to design, conduct, analyse, draw conclusions and evaluate your own experiment.
Only HL students will be directly assessed on the understanding of approaches to research in paper 3.
Topics of Approaches to Research Behaviour
Research methods
Elements of research behaviour
Analysing data
Evaluating research
Drawing conclusions
3. The Core
Biological Approach to Understanding Behaviour
Psychologists taking the Biological Approach explain behaviour by examining physiological and evolutionary causes. They look for correlations between what is going on in our bodies with what we are doing. Using brain imaging technologies, these psychologists map the brain’s structure and investigate how the brain and its billions of neural networks can change through experience. How hormones and neurotransmitters influence behaviour is another avenue of research. Other topics within this approach include how genes shape our individual lives and how evolution provides the broad contours of our journey through life. Biological psychologists have added tremendously to our understanding of people’s thoughts and actions but they acknowledge biology cannot explain all of our behaviours.
Psychologists taking a biological approach adopt research methods linked to their assumptions about how biology shapes people. As you study this approach, you will read experimental reports and case studies that investigate the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones and genes. Brain imaging technology has helped psychologists make remarkable strides in mapping the individual organs of the brain and understanding how the brain works as an integrated whole to direct behaviour. New thinking about the plasticity of the brain has overturned earlier ideas the brain was a static organ that changed little over the lifespan. Surprising new insights are emerging about the staggeringly complex ways that genes and the environment interact. Evolutionary psychologists take a broader approach to understanding behaviour by claiming many human activities evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. Animal experimentation is also undertaken by biological scientists.
The content of the Biological Approach
Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour
Localization of function
Neuroplasticity
Neurotransmitters their effects on behaviour
Hormones and their effects on behaviour
Pheromones and their effects on behaviour
Genes and their effect on behaviour
Genetic similarity
Evolutionary explanation for behaviour
The role of animal research in understanding human behaviour (HL only)
Ask yourself
Are you surprised that psychology focuses so much on biology?
Can we really learn about human behaviour by studying how rats run a maze or how chimps learn sign language?
How could this approach help make sense of Malala's experiences?
Cognitive Approach to Understanding Behaviour
Instead of examining the brain or genes, cognitive psychologists explore mental processes, such as memory, attitudes, perceptions, attention and thinking. Cognitive psychologists examine how we process the information we receive through our senses, and how we represent and think about the world.
Cognitive research methods focus on how mental processing affects different behaviours. The human mind is compared to a computer that processes raw data to create something infinitely more complex. Models of these mental processes explain memory, attitudes and perception and have produced many insights into behaviour. Cognitive neuroscientists use methods similar to the biological approach and include brain scanning techniques and experimentation. Emotions, as well as biases in thinking and decision-making, can also affect behaviour and these are also explored in this approach.
The cognitive approach interacts with the other perspective to develop a holistic picture of complex human behaviour.
The content of the Cognitive Approach:
Models of memory and concepts related to memory processing
Schema theory
Thinking and decision-making
Reconstructive memory
Biases in thinking and decision-making
The influence of emotion on cognitive processes
Cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world (HL only)
Ask yourself
Can we really study the mind objectively?
How can models make assumptions about invisible mental processes?
How could this approach help make sense of Malala's experiences?
Sociocultural Approach to Understanding Behaviour
Psychologists taking the sociocultural approach assume that behaviour is best understood in its social and cultural context. Our lifelong interaction with family, friends and the wider world is the focus of investigations. In this way, you can see that the sociocultural approach moves away from the individual brain and mind to look at people as they affect and are affected by others. Our upbringing, our education, our geographical and historical context and how we interact with each other in daily social activities shape how we think and behave. Being a member of a larger group can affect individual behaviour and also the development of our identity. This approach does not dismiss biological and cognitive inputs into behaviour but sees them as just part of the larger picture.
The research methods of the sociocultural approach are focussed on social and cultural environments. Investigators undertake observations under real-life conditions, set up focus group interviews, and use any method that allows the researcher to see the world through the eyes of those being studied. These methods are not always controlled experiments as the goal is understanding the meaning of human behaviour in its social context.
The content of the Sociocultural Approach:
Social identity theory
Social cognitive theory
Stereotypes
Culture and its influence on behaviour
Cultural dimensions
Enculturation
Acculturation
The influence of globalisation on individual behaviour (HL only)
Ask yourself
How do you think your culture influences your behaviour?
What are the difficulties in carrying out research in Social Psychology?
How could these approaches help make sense of Malala’s experiences?
4. The Options
Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal Psychology builds upon your knowledge of Approaches to Research and the Core. You will analyse how insights generated by these approaches relate to the diagnosis, explanation and treatment of abnormal behaviour. There is no accepted definition of what makes an action abnormal, and factors such as social norms, changes over time and culture have influenced clinical definitions. The disputed nature of abnormality has important effects on diagnosis and treatment. To explore these issues, you will focus on the mood disorder of depression.
Psychology of Human Relationships (HL only)
The Psychology of Human Relationships focuses on individuals in personal relationships or in groups. It also builds upon your understanding of Approaches to Research and the Core. Each approach contributes insights into relationships. For instance, the biological approach investigates the role hormones and genetics play in attraction. The cognitive approach investigates schema theory (schema theory = a theory about how the mind organises knowledge) on how we perceive the nature of relationships. Social psychologists have concentrated their investigations on beliefs, social identity theory and the role of culture. Improving relationships, promoting social responsibility and reducing violence are the prime applications of the knowledge generated.
5. Examples of Research
Study 1
Leon Festinger, Henry Riecken and Stanley Schachter (1956) were interested in why people join cults and what happens to members when end-of-the-world prophecies fail to happen. A cult is a small religious group that hold beliefs regarded by many people as extreme or dangerous. In 1956 they published a classic study in social psychology of a cult based in the USA. Cult members believed that a massive flood would end the world on 21 December and only they would be rescued by flying saucers. The researchers conducted a covert participant observation study by pretending to be true believers of the cult’s prophesy. They hid their identity as psychologists while they secretly recorded events. Midnight of the 21st came and went, and there was no flood to signal the beginning of a natural disaster, and no rescue by flying saucers. After a stunned silence the leader of the cult explained that the world had been spared destruction because their fervent prayers had brought God’s mercy. While the cult lost a few disillusioned members, the majority remained convinced that their prayers has saved the world from annihilation.
Study 2
Hans Van Dongen, a leading world expert on sleep, wanted to understand how people were affected when they did not sleep for the recommended seven to eight hours per night. He worked with other psychologists to design an experiment to investigate this question (Dongen et al. 2003). Their study compared the effects of total sleep deprivation and severe sleep reduction. They used an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure waking and sleeping brain activity of forty-eight adults. These participants were randomly divided into four groups. Three groups each received either four, six or eight hours of sleep per night for fourteen nights. The severe sleep deprived group received no sleep at all for three nights. The results showed that those receiving only four or six hours of sleep did not perform cognitive tasks well and their performance worsened over the three weeks of the experiment. The participants did not know that they were performing these thinking tasks poorly and did not report feeling tired or sleepy. Getting six hours or fewer of sleep per night for fourteen nights had the same cognitive effect as two nights with no sleep, but again the participants were not conscious of this. The researchers concluded that participants were not aware that a lack of sleep reduced their ability to think. Those who are often sleep deprived dismiss advice that they should get at least seven to eight hours of sleep per night.
Study 3
Ineke Imbo and Jo-Anne LeFevre (2009) were both interested in memory and how people solve maths problems. They investigated how different cultural groups used their memories when adding, subtracting and multiplying. Sixty-five participants were selected for the study and they came from three different cultures living in Canada: Flemish-speaking Belgians, English-speaking Canadians and Chinese-speaking Chinese. Participants solved problems in a number of conditions. The problems were presented either horizontally or vertically. Some problems were easy, others were hard. In one condition, letter strings of four consonants (e.g. TKXL) had to be recalled after solving four maths problems. One of their findings was that the Chinese participants were faster at solving problems than the Belgians, who were faster and more accurate than the Canadians. They concluded that these cultural differences in problem-solving were caused by differences in how participants were taught in elementary school.
Ask yourself
What approach is taken in these three studies?
What topics are being investigated?
Further Reading
The Pamoja Teachers Articles Collection has a range of articles relevant to your study of the sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour.
References
Festinger, L., Riecken, H.W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
Imbo, I., & LeFevre, J-A. (2009). Cultural differences in complex addition: Efficient Chinese versus adaptive Belgians and Canadians. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(6), 1465-1476.
Van Dongen, H.P., Maislin, G., Mullington, J.M., & Dinges, D.F. (2003). The cumulative cost of additional wakefulness: dose-response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation. Sleep, 26, 117-126.
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