Chapter 6: Sociocultural Approach to Understanding Behaviour

Essential Questions

  • How do psychologists adopt a sociocultural approach to study behaviour?

  • How does membership to groups influence our sense of self?

  • How do we acquire behaviour by observing group members?

  • What factors influence the formation of stereotypes and what are their effect?

  • What is culture?

  • What are cultural dimensions?

  • How do the processes of enculturation and acculturation influence individual attitudes, identity and behaviour?

  • How has globalisation influenced behaviour? (HL only)

Myths and Misconceptions

The more people are present during an emergency the higher the likelihood people will help.

This is not necessarily so. We will read about studies that investigated factors that influence a person’s willingness to help someone in an emergency. Surprisingly, the more people who are present, the less likely it is that an individual will help.

Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus.

That men and women have different ways of communicating was a popular idea of the 1990s but it is an overstatement. Lilienfeld et al. (2009) found that there is little difference in how much each gender talks and women are only slightly more willing to self-disclose (self-disclose = share private information) than men. The only significant difference was that women were better at reading non-verbal cues than men. The authors argue that the myth that men and women have totally different communication styles is an exaggeration.

The majority can impose their beliefs and attitudes on a minority.

We will examine the factors that influence conformity. Asch (1955) showed how male college students will give the wrong answer on a visual perception test so as to fit in with the group and avoid social rejection. On the other hand, researchers have shown that the minority can influence the majority in situations when the minority expresses a strong commitment to an alternative opinion.

1. A Historical Perspective on the Sociocultural Approach to Behaviour

Social psychology is the study of how groups influence behaviour. Early social psychologists included Asch (1955) who studied conformity, Milgram (1963, 1974) who investigated obedience and Haney et al. (1973) who examined the power of social settings like prisons to dramatically change behaviour. Darley and LatanƩ (1968) wanted to know why we ignore cries for help. Why we hold stereotypes and prejudices against others is another topic of interest. Two new interests have emerged in modern social psychology, social cognition and culture. How do we construct our social world and form opinions and attitudes about others? How does culture influence behaviour?

2. Research Methods of the Sociocultural Approach

2.1 Case Studies

The section below demonstrates the range of methods used by social psychologists and the types of question they ask about human behaviour.

Sociocultural researchers take a holistic approach to studying human behaviour. They argue that all humans are social animals and their behaviour cannot be explained solely by either the actions of neurons or an individual’s cognition. Instead, human behaviour also needs to be examined in its social and cultural context. Case studies are useful because they aim to give a detailed picture of an individual or small group of people in different contexts. They have the potential of generating rich data with real relevance to a participant’s life.

2.2 Natural Experiments

In a natural experiment the independent variable is not manipulated. Instead it occurs naturally, in the normal course of life. It can be a factor like gender, ethnicity or age; it can also be an event such as unemployment in a town or even the introduction of TV to a remote area.

2.3 Field Experiments

Field experiments are conducted in the participants’ own environments. Like all experiments, the investigators manipulate an independent variable (IV) and measure the effect on the DV. Participants are often unaware that they are in an experiment. Because of their natural location which offers less control over variables other than the IV, field experiments are much less artificial than experiments carried out in a laboratory and their results are more ecologically valid.

2.4 Observations

Observations are frequently carried out by researchers taking a sociocultural approach because this method examines behaviour in its social settings. Researchers have a number of options including participant or non-participant observations carried out covertly or overtly (see Chapter 2). To triangulate methods, participants who have been observed may also be interviewed.

More recently there has been a shift away from covert observation to either participant or non-participant overt observation. New filming techniques have made observations and recording less obstructive and participants are more likely to act naturally.

2.5 Emic and Etic Approaches to Research

The words ā€˜emic’ and ā€˜etic’ refer to two different approaches to researching human beings. The terms originated in linguistics and anthropology in the 1950s and 1960s. The emic approach to research focuses on the perspectives and words of participants. The researcher using this emic approach will use accounts and descriptions given in the very words used by the members of the group or culture being studied. The researcher focuses on specific features of the group or culture. The researcher tries to put aside psychological theories and let the data from the participants ā€˜speak for itself’. This approach is the basis for ā€˜grounded theory’ in which the theory grows out of the material, rather than the theory being used to examine if the data supports it or not. The data creates the meaning. Therefore, the emic approach is often used when researching new topics. The emic approach appreciates the uniqueness of the context being studied and local viewpoints.

The etic approach to research is the opposite as it is focused on the universal. The etic approach uses as its starting point theories and concepts from outside of the setting being studied. The researcher using this etic approach will use existing theory and see if it applies to a new setting or population. The categories used are those that have meaning for the researcher. One of the strengths of the etic approach is that it allows more general cross-cultural concepts to emerge. Sometimes both approaches are used to provide a more holistic picture of behaviour within and across cultures.

2.6 Ethics and Sociocultural Research Methods

Ethics refers to a system of moral values or the way people distinguish right from wrong. The American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological Society (BPS) require all their members to adhere to its code of ethics, which applies to the treatment of both humans and animals.

The desire to investigate human behaviour under natural circumstances has sometimes led to ethical problems associated with the sociocultural research methods. They are mainly related to informed consent, access to the research after the data has been collected and causing distress to participants once they learnt they had been deceived. A significant amount of research is naturalistic – that is ā€˜as it really is’ – and has involved covert participant observation. This approach has been criticised on ethical grounds. Many studies from the past would not be accepted by current ethics committees. However, these studies have contributed significantly to knowledge regarding human behaviour and it could be argued that the end justifies the means.

As you read about the studies in this chapter, note any ethical considerations the researchers will have taken or needed to take before, during and after the research.

3. The Individual and the Group

3.1 Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory refers to the way someone thinks about themselves and evaluates themselves in relation to groups. Social identity theory posits that a person’s sense of who they are is based on their membership of social groups.

Source: IB Psychology Guide

Social identity theory was first proposed by Henri Tajfel (1971). He argued that the groups to which we belong are an important source of pride and self-esteem. We can feel good about ourselves by boosting the status of any group we belong to. Age groups, sporting teams, hobbies, gender, religions, ethnic groups and nations are all examples of groups that can give us our sense of social identity and belonging. For example, we may believe that our country, our team, our school is better than any other, and therefore other groups and their members are inferior. Unfortunately, identifying with a specific ā€˜ingroup’ to improve our self-esteem can lead to competition and intolerance against an ā€˜outgroup’. Tajfel’s theory is very influential in explaining stereotyping, discrimination and prejudice.

Tajfel identified three processes in his theory of social identity.

Categorisation is a process of organising objects and people (including ourselves) into groups. Social categories such as young, old, teacher, bus driver, Asian, student and so on are used as they describe important attributes of that person. If we belong to such a category, then we share those attributes. Group membership involves acting appropriately and following the group’s norms of behaviour. We all belong to many different groups and appropriate behaviour as a student might differ somewhat from appropriate behaviour in the family or with a group of friends.

Social identification is when we adopt the identity of ā€˜our’ group. If you have categorised yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to conform to the norms of the ā€˜student’ group. Your self-esteem will be linked to this group and other groups you belong to and help define who you are.

Social comparison involves comparing your group with others. To maintain or improve your self-esteem, your group needs to compare well with other groups. This is critical to understanding prejudice because once two groups identify themselves as rivals they are likely to compete so that members can maintain and improve their self-esteem.

Focus on Research

Tafjel’s research led to other social psychologists investigating social groups and how membership of groups influenced individuals. One theory about how we make sense of our social world is social representation theory proposed by Moscovici and Nemeth (1974). They are similar to cognitive schemas but in this case applied to a group. This schema provides information about the group’s norms and how members communicate with each other. They establish a common understanding between group members and they contain all information about the identity of the group and how it functions in society. The study outlined below uses this theory to understand the social world of people living in a distinct area of London.

Focus on Research

3.2 Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory suggests behaviour is modelled by other members of a group and acquired through observation or imitation based on the consequences of a behaviour.

Bandura (1977) was one of the first psychologists to investigate how behaviour is modelled and acquired through observation or imitation. He argued that behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observation. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated by his famous Bobo doll (Bobo doll = inflatable toy clown) experiment (Bandura et al., 1961).

Focus on Research

Condition 1 Aggressive Model

Condition 2 Non-Aggressive Model

Condition 3 Control Group No Model

Same-sex model

6 female participants

6 male participants

6 female participants

6 male participants

12 female participants

12 male participants

Opposite sex model

6 female participants

6 male participants

6 female participants

6 male participants

Bandura’s study provided many insights into social learning and much subsequent research was carried out by other psychologists. There is an awareness that children are surrounded by many influential role models, such as family members, television characters, friends and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behaviour which are observed and, under certain circumstances, imitated. A child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself, either the same age and/or the same sex. If a child imitates behaviour and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behaviour. If a parent sees a little girl consoling her doll and says ā€˜what a good girl you are’, this makes it more likely that she will repeat the behaviour. Her behaviour has been reinforced. Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants approval from parents or friends, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about this approval is an internal reinforcement. Finally, the child will also take into account what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. If they see someone punished for imitating behaviour, the child will learn the behaviour, but will not display it. Identification with the role model occurs and involves adopting observed behaviours, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom the child is identifying.

Bandura built upon his original theory of social learning to broaden its scope and he introduced the concept of self-efficacy. The idea here is the importance of a person’s perception of their chances of success based on their previous experiences. When a person’s sense of self-efficacy is high, they believe that they can behave in ways that will lead to success. By contrast, when a person’s sense of self-efficacy is low, they believe they are incapable of success and may not even try. These beliefs are very powerful and impact relationships, health and work as well as traits of persistence. This sense of self-efficacy is shaped by past situations and experiences that a person encounters in life.

Berry (2003) undertook research into social cognitive theory. He explored how cross-cultural images and portrayals on television might influence the multicultural attitudes, values and beliefs of children. Based on his research, he argued for more culturally diverse role models on North American television: ā€˜[children] need to understand from television that to be female, disabled, or religiously and ethnically different does not make you ā€œdisadvantaged,ā€ ā€œdeprived,ā€ or ā€œinferior,ā€ and that it is important for all children to take pride in their unique customs, skin colour, language, and lifestyle’ (p. 365).

The social cognitive theory has been applied to developmental psychology to understand how adolescents look to role models to identify with because they are in the process of developing their own identities. One focus has been on the effect on young people of playing violent video games. While most research has concluded that the highly interactive nature of these games leads to identification with the role models and subsequent imitation of their behaviour, there is no consensus of opinion about the negative and positive effects of video gaming.

Focus on Research

An evaluation of social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory has remained popular. It convincingly explains why children raised in aggressive or racist households tend to grow up to be aggressive or racist adults (there is a strong link to stereotype formation here). It explains how teenagers can turn to peer role models that are conformist or non-conformist and how some television programmes and video games can have a powerful influence on children because they will imitate the violence shown. This approach to understanding behaviour takes into account cognition and social pressures to provide insights into the learning of aggression and gender role development. Social cognitive theory has also formed the basis of treatments for phobias, with modelling-based therapies.

Social cognitive theorists are committed to the controlled experimental approach so as to establish cause and effect. However, this does mean that some of the studies lack ecological validity.

Ask Yourself

Do you think violent television and video games should be banned for certain ages? Why? Why not?

3.3 Stereotypes

A stereotype is a generalized and rather fixed way of thinking about a group of people. Examples of stereotypes influencing behaviour could be prejudice and discrimination. The theory of stereotype threat indicates that internalized stereotypes could influence an individual’s self-perception and behaviour in negative ways.

Source: IB Psychology Guide

Cardwell (1996) defines a stereotype as a fixed, over-generalised belief about a particular group of people. The word ā€˜stereotype’ originally described a solid plate of type-metal that was used for printing instead of using the original. Over time it became a metaphor for developing a set of unchanging and often exaggerated ideas about others. ā€˜All women are bad drivers’ would be an example of an inaccurate stereotype with no truth behind it. In fact, often car insurance for women is less expensive as they have fewer accidents than men. ā€˜All men are physically stronger than women’ is an example of a stereotype with some truth behind it. Because of their ratio of muscle to fat and bone, most men are physically stronger than most women.

Stereotypes can be both positive or negative, but they fail to consider any variations from one individual to another. A stereotype can be considered a schema, as we categorise people into a group and apply general characteristics, forming a schema of how members of this group behave. If we limit our perceptions of others to the definitions of the stereotypes, and do not add specific information for each person, then we can develop biases against whole groups of people.

Our social world is very complex and provides us with a great deal of information. To avoid information overload, we use stereotypes because they can easily be applied to people. We all use categories of people, places and things to understand and make sense of the world around us. In the course of stereotyping, a useful category – say, women – becomes coloured by additional associations, sometimes negative. We process the gender, age and ethnicity of others and our minds respond with messages that say things like ā€˜weak, sentimental, hostile’. When these qualities do not reflect reality, a stereotype is no longer an aid to understanding but rather a source of misunderstanding.

One explanation of the formation of stereotypes is Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory. As you recall, this theory proposes that we categorise others into ingroups and outgroups. We tend to favour the ingroup which leads to a positive stereotyping of the ingroup. We tend to see our group in a positive light. Members of the outgroup are stereotyped in a negative way. To Tajfel, stereotyping lifts the self-esteem of members of the ingroup.

Brigham (1986) conducted a study into stereotyping that supports social identity theory. He researched eyewitness identification procedures and found that Caucasians were more likely to stereotype African Americans as criminals than other whites in eyewitness identification. This is likely due to the tendency to view people that belong to our group more favourably, while we tend to view members of other groups as having undesirable qualities.

To explain stereotyping, Hamilton and Gifford (1976) developed a theory of illusory correlations. (See Chapter 5.) This theory distinguishes between stereotyping as the encoding of new information and stereotyping as the application of existing knowledge. They focused on the formation of new stereotypes which they argued are the result of illusory correlations. These illusory correlations are triggered when two fairly infrequent situations or events take place at the same time. This unusual combination captures the observer’s attention and leads to stronger encoding. To test their theory, Hamilton and Gifford performed an experiment in which participants read desirable and undesirable trait adjectives about the members of one majority group and one minority group. Proportionally, there were the same amount of desirable and undesirable traits for each group. However, they found that participants over-estimated the frequency of undesirable traits in the minority group. Though Hamilton and Gifford (1976) acknowledged that society and culture help form stereotypes, they argued that ā€˜cognitive factors alone can be sufficient to produce differential perceptions of social groups’ (p. 405).

In the same way that the theory of illusory correlations provides insights into how stereotypes might first form, the availability heuristic and the confirmation bias help explain why stereotypes persist. According to the availability heuristic, the more easily an event is retrieved, the more likely we are to overestimate its frequency. For example, if we see a car driven by a young man being involved in an accident, we only need to see a young man driving a little erratically a few days later to become convinced that ā€˜all young people are bad drivers’. Due to the confirmation bias, we may ignore examples of good driving and focus more on poor driving by young people.

Other theories of why stereotypes can arise are the grain of truth hypothesis and gatekeeper theory. Campbell (1967) states that stereotypes can be formed from two sources: from a person’s own experiences with that group of people, or they can learn about groups of people through gatekeepers like the media, parents and friends. In both cases, there is often a small amount of evidence (ā€˜grain of truth’) that gets exaggerated and generalised. Gatekeepers use stereotypes to define groups and their members, and these stereotypes become part of the culture and are seen as ā€˜true’.

A key question that several psychologists have asked is whether one individual is more likely to hold stereotypes than others. As early as 1954, Gordon Allport claimed that the cognitive processes of prejudiced people, who form negative stereotypes about others, differed from the cognitive processes of tolerant people (1954, p. 170). This means that a person’s stereotyping and prejudice is probably directed at many groups and is a feature of the prejudiced person’s personality. Schaller et al. (1995) conducted two studies that confirmed the ā€˜prejudiced personality’ existed, but emphasised that the effects of the social context in either mitigating (mitigate = to make less severe) or increasing the tendency to develop negative stereotypes needed further research.

Ask Yourself

Do you think there is such a thing as a ā€˜prejudiced personality’? Why? Why not?

Effects of stereotypes

Stereotypes can have powerful effects on how we view and interact with others. Information about other groups can be subject to bias and distortion and poor judgements about others can easily follow.

Focus on Research

Ask Yourself

Should schools be co-educational or single sex? How does this study contribute to this contentious issue?

3.4 Assessment Advice: The Individual and the Group

QUESTION

STUDY

SAQs

Outline/describe/explain

Suggested Studies

One research method (approach to research) used when investigating the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

Ethical considerations of research into the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

One study investigating the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

How social groups influence the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

Social identity theory

Tajfel (1971)

One study investigating social identity theory

Tajfel (1971)

Social cognitive theory

Bandura (1961) or Konijn et al (2007)

One study investigating social cognitive theory

Bandura (1961) or Konijn et al (2007)

Development (formation) of stereotypes

Hamilton & Rose (1980)

One study investigating the development (formation) of stereotypes

Hamilton & Rose (1980)

One effect of stereotypes

Steele & Aronson (1995)

One study investigating one effect of stereotypes

Steele & Aronson (1995)

QUESTIONS (ERQs)

Discuss/evaluate/contrast/to what extent?

Research methods (approaches to research) used when investigating the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

Howarth (2002)

Ethical considerations of research into the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

Howarth (2002)

Research (studies) into the individual and the group

Tajfel (1971)

Howarth (2002)

Social identity theory

Tajfel (1971)

Howarth (2002)

Research (studies) into social identity theory

Tajfel (1971)

Howarth (2002)

Social cognitive theory

Bandura (1961) and Konijn et al. (2007)

Research (studies) into social cognitive theory

Bandura (1961) and Konijn et al. (2007)

One or more theories of the development of stereotypes

Hamilton & Rose (1980)

Hamilton and Gifford (1976)

Research (studies) into the development of stereotypes

Hamilton & Rose (1980)

Hamilton and Gifford (1976)

One or more theory of the effect of stereotypes

Cohen (1981)

Steele & Aronson (1995)

Research (studies) into the effect of stereotypes

Cohen (1981)

Steele & Aronson (1995)

4. Cultural Origins of Behaviour and Cognition

4.1 Cultural and its Influence on Behaviour and Cognition

Matsumoto and Juang (2004, p.10) define culture as ā€˜a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviours.’ A dynamic culture is by definition constantly shifting in response to environmental and social changes.

Cultural norms are part of a culture. They are patterns of behaviour typical to specific groups and are passed down through generations by ā€˜gatekeepers’ such as parents, teachers, elders and the media. Cultural norms influence almost every element of life, either visibly (as in the particular form of the marriage ceremony) or less visibly (as in assumptions about whom you may marry).

One way that culture has been conceptualised is to make a distinction between surface and deep culture. Surface culture includes things like food, dress, music, visual arts, crafts, dance, literature, language, celebrations and games. These aspects of culture can be easily observed by members of that culture and by outsiders. Deep culture includes concepts of time, ideas about personal space, types and forms of non-verbal communications, ideas about child-rearing, the nature of friendships and the concept of self. These beliefs, values and thought processes can be easily understood by members of that culture but may be less accessible to outsiders. These invisible aspects of deep culture influence the visible aspects of surface culture.

Cultures

Cultures are made up of a set of attitudes, behaviours, and symbols shared by a large group of people, and usually communicated from one generation to the next. Cultural groups are characterized by different norms and conventions.ā€Œ

Source: IB Psychology Guide

Focus on Research

4.2 Cultural Dimensions

Modern research on cultural dimensions comes from Hofstede’s original research in the 1960s and 1970s, which is described on Geert Hofstede’s website. He based his theory on a large survey of the attitudes and national values of 117,000 employees of IBM from 40 countries. More countries were later surveyed and more occupations were also included.

Hofstede originally distinguished four ā€˜cultural dimensions’ by which life in a society is organised. They are as follows.

Power Distance – the extent to which people in societies accept, or do not accept, a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification.

Individualism versus Collectivism – the extent to which people prefer a loosely knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families or a tightly knit framework where individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of ā€˜I’ or ā€˜we’. Individualist cultures are seen as ā€˜I’ cultures and collectivist cultures as ā€˜we’ cultures.

Masculinity versus Femininity – the extent to which a society is competitive (masculine) or cooperative (feminine).

Uncertainty versus Avoidance – the extent to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the unknown future. A society high in uncertainty avoidance tries to control people’s behaviour through rigid codes of belief and is intolerant of unconventional ideas.

Two dimensions were added later as follows.

Long-term versus Short-Term Orientation is the extent to which a culture values the long term over the short term. This dimension is also referred to as Confucian Dynamism. Long-term cultures value future rewards, persistence and perseverance, thrift and the ability to adapt to changing circumstance. Societies with a short-term orientation value the past and the present, national pride, respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations and the role of religion.

Indulgence versus Restraint – this is a final dimension that was added in 2010. It expresses the attitude of a culture to the gratification of natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates drives by means of strict social norms.

As you might notice, there are dimensions that seem to overlap and form clusters. There is a strong chance, for example, that societies scoring high on uncertainty avoidance might also score high on restraint.

Cultural Dimensions

Cultural dimensions refer to the values of members of a society living within a particular culture.ā€Œ

Source: IB Psychology Guide

Ask Yourself

Do you think the concept of cultural dimensions is an effective way of highlighting the difference between cultures?

Individualism/collectivism: Compliance

One avenue of research to examine how cultural dimensions might influence behaviour is to compare compliance in different cultures. Compliance refers to the act of responding favourably to an explicit or implicit request by others. The request may be explicit, such as a direct request for a charity donation, or implicit, such as an advertisement promoting some product without directly asking for purchase. In all cases, we realise that we are being urged to respond in a desired way. See below for examples.

Reciprocity

We all tend to do something for someone who has already done something for us. If someone does something for you, such as giving you a free sample of a product, then you feel more obliged to do something for them, and buy the product.

Commitment

If we make a small commitment, then we are more likely to commit to something larger in the future. For example, if we just buy a single DVD from an online store then we are more likely to buy other DVDs that they send us.

Manipulating people to comply

Compliance is known to be enhanced by a number of situational manipulations. The ā€˜Foot-in-the-Door’ technique involves someone making a small request before they make a much larger request. If you comply with the first, you are more likely to comply with subsequent larger requests. The ā€˜Door-in-the-Face’ technique adopts the opposite approach. A request likely to be refused is made and this is then followed up by a smaller request that you are more likely to see as reasonable. The ā€˜That’s not all’ technique is often used by television marketers. A product is described and then an additional offer of free products is made. The salesperson is trying to make the offer as tempting and appealing as possible.

Ingratiation

This is a compliance technique in which the persuaders get their target person to like them first, through flattery and presenting themselves as like their target, and then attempting to gain compliance with some request. While flattery might seem the most obviously successful, doing small favours, using appropriate body language and exploiting similarities between themselves and the target, are also successful.

Researchers have investigated whether there are cultural differences in a person’s willingness to comply with a request. The study by Petrova et al. (2007) is typical of this research interest.

Focus on Research

Individualism/collectivism: Subjective Well being

Globalisation has increased dramatically in its scope and reach in the last several decades. To understand the positive and negative influences on individual behaviour, psychologists have investigated how East Asian students have adapted to the educational practices of European/American cultural contexts.

Another approach focuses on multinational companies' workplace practices based in an individualist culture that set up branch offices in countries with more collectivist orientation. Ogihara and Uchida (2014) took both approaches to investigate the adverse effects of individualism on interpersonal relationship and happiness.

Study 1.

Aim: To investigate the adverse effects of individualism in an East Asian culture by examining the relationship between individualistic values, subjective well-being (SWB), and the number of close relationships in Japan and the U.S.

Type of Study: Survey

Hypotheses: Individualistic values would be associated with a significant decrease in close friends and SWB in Japan, but not to close friends and SWB in the U.S.

Participants: One hundred and fourteen undergraduate students at Kyoto University in Japan and 62 undergraduate students at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the U.S.

Procedures: The study used various instruments to measure participants' individualist and collectivist orientation, their subject well-being and the number of close friends (see the study for a description of these instruments).

Results: The individualistic orientation score was significantly higher for the U.S. participants than for Japanese participants. The collectivistic orientation score was not significantly different across cultures.

In Japan, an individualistic orientation negatively affected SWB. However, a collectivistic orientation did not affect SWB.

In contrast, in the U.S., a collectivistic orientation negatively affected SWB, but an individualistic orientation did not affect SWB.

In Japan, an individualistic orientation was associated with fewer close friends, but this relationship was not found in the U.S.

Conclusions: An individualistic orientation in Japan is associated with fewer close friends and lower subjective well-being.

The researchers argued that:

"In a more globalised world, culture matters more than ever before. Therefore, the effect of globalisation (in particular, the effects of individualism) on individuals and nations should be examined from a cultural perspective in more detail in the future."

Critiques of Cultural Dimensions

Though the original cultural dimensions were identified in the 1970s, Hofstede (2011) argues that there are still many differences between national cultures. Though the world has undergone globalisation, he contends these differences will continue to play a role into the next century. Psychologists like Bond (1997) have not accepted that the best way to understand a culture is to focus on values. For example, Gelfand et al. (2006) proposed that psychologists should give attention to the structure of societies. They observed that societies have ā€˜tight’ or ā€˜loose’ structures. Tight societies are characterised by strong and well-developed social norms that can impose sanctions on members of the society that deviate from these norms. In contrast, loose societies do not have strong norms of behaviour and they are much more tolerant of people who deviate from the norm. They used Japan as an example of a ā€˜tight’ society because it has clear boundaries about what is acceptable behaviour, it is less tolerant of ambiguity and difference and it imposes a stronger socialisation of children into these norms than a loose society like the USA.

The researchers argued that tightness–looseness is distinct from individualism–collectivism, uncertainty avoidance and power distance. There is variation in tightness–looseness across societies and within societies (e.g. by region and/or ethnic group). The concept of tightness–looseness can also be applied to formal and informal organisations. For example, an understanding of tightness–looseness can provide psychological insights into diverse groups such as the Taliban, the military and gangs.

4.3 Assessment Advice: Cultural Origins of Behaviour and Cognition

QUESTION

STUDY

SAQs

Outline/describe/explain

Suggested Studies

One research method (approach to research) used when investigating cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007) or

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

Ethical considerations of research into cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007) or

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

One example of culture and its influence on behaviour and cognition

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

One effect of cultural group membership on behaviour and cognition

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

The influence of one cultural dimension on behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007)

QUESTIONS (ERQs)

Discuss/evaluate/contrast/to what extent?

Research methods (approaches to research) used when investigating cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007)

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

Ethical considerations of research into cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007)

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

Research (studies) into the cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One or more example of culture and its influence on behaviour and cognition

Sanchez-Burks & Nisbet (2000)

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One or more cultural dimension and their influence on behaviour and cognition

Petrova (2007)

Ogihara & Uchida (2014)

5. Cultural Influences on Individual Behaviour

5.1 Enculturation and Acculturation

Socialisation is a process of learning the social norms of a culture.There are two ways this may take place. Enculturation is a lifelong process that helps a person acquire social values, social norms, behaviours, social roles, expectations, language and other tools of a culture. This is how we acquire our first culture and it is a conscious and unconscious conditioning process. Parents, friends, family and the media are all strong influences in teaching individuals what are acceptable behaviours and what behaviours should be avoided. An individual should conform to the accepted behaviours or risk being considered a deviant by the rest of the society.

Acculturation is a process of socialisation and psychological adjustment that takes place when two cultures come into contact. This is how we acquire our second or third culture. To sum up, enculturation is the process where you acquire your own culture, while acculturation is the merging of two cultures.

While enculturation is a one-way process, acculturation can be a two-way process with both cultures experiencing changes to their language, clothing, customs and practices. However, minorities that have relocated and are now living inside a country are more likely to assimilate to the new culture. Psychologists interested in acculturation have investigated how minorities such as refugees, immigrants and indigenous people interact with the dominant culture and how successfully they have adapted.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which people learn the necessary and appropriate skills and norms in the context of their culture.

Acculturation

People may change as a result of contact with other cultures in order to assimilate into a new culture.

Source: IB Psychology Guide

Focus on Research

Ask Yourself

Do you think living or studying in a different culture is a stressful experience? Why? Why not?

5.2 Assessment Advice: Cultural Influences on Individual Behaviour

QUESTION

STUDY

SAQs

Outline/describe/explain

Suggested Studies

One research method (approach to research) used when investigating cultural influences on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One ethical consideration of research into cultural influences on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One cultural influence on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One effect enculturation has on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

The effect of norms on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

One effect acculturation has on individual behaviour

Wang & Mallinckrodt (2006)

The influence assimilation (or the need to assimilate) has on individual behaviour

Berry (2005)

QUESTIONS (ERQs)

Discuss/evaluate/contrast/to what extent?

Research (studies) into cultural influences on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

Wang & Mallinckrodt (2006)

Ethical considerations of research into cultural influences on individual behaviour

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

Wang & Mallinckrodt (2006)

Research (studies) into one effect enculturation has on human cognition and behaviour

Petrova (2007)

Sorokowska et al. (2017)

Research (studies) into one effect acculturation has on human cognition and behaviour

Wang & Mallinckrodt (2006)

Berry, Phinney, Sam and Vedder (2006)

6. The Influence of Globalisation on Individual Behaviour (HL only)

The HL extension topic for the Sociocultural approach focuses on the influence of globalisation on individual attitudes, identities and behaviour. Topics include:

  • The effect of the interaction of local and global influences on behaviour.

  • Research methods used to study the influence of globalisation on behaviour.

Your understanding of these topics will be tested in Paper 1 Section B (only ERQs will be asked).

6.1 Globalisation and Behaviour

Globalisation is a powerful force comprised of various dimensions, including the economic, the political, the sociocultural, the technological and the environmental. It has helped expand international production and trade, facilitated advances in technology and brought people of diverse societies into contact with each other. This process has a long history, with cultures influencing each other for centuries through trade, migration and war. While some commentators refer to globalisation as an economic process involving the opening and crossing of borders, psychologists are more interested in how social and cultural exchanges influence attitudes, identities and behaviour. In the 21st century, interacting with people from other cultures is no longer limited by time and place. Furthermore, digital technology has made it possible for people worldwide to contact each other instantaneously.

Globalisation has increased dramatically in its scope and reach in the last several decades and sparked a heated debate about the pros and cons. The economic benefits have been questioned, and some people have felt threatened by foreign influences seen as eroding their local culture. Psychologists have contributed to the debate by exploring the psychological impact of globalisation. One focus has been on how people from different cultures react to and make sense of globalisation. Are attitudes open and positive or closed and negative, and what influences these reactions? Are some individuals adopting a bicultural identity? Are others experiencing cultural confusion or feeling that their local culture is being marginalised and excluded? To determine the effect of the interaction of local and global influences on behaviour, the processes of enculturation (local influences) and acculturation (global influences) will be revisited.

As you read about the following studies, be mindful that you may be asked to discuss methods used to study globalisation's influence on behaviour.

You will recall that enculturation is a lifelong process that helps a person gain social values, social norms, behaviours, social roles, expectations and language. These local influences shape our first culture. Acculturation involves socialisation and psychological change that takes place when we come into contact with other cultures. There are several ways that this might take place. For example, migrants undergo this process when they move to another country. Another consequence of globalisation has been the emergence of Third Culture Individuals (TCIs), who are raised in a culture other than their parents' culture.

The HL extension topic focuses on behaviour and how people living in their own local culture are affected by global influences that are predominately Western and individualistic. One broad approach is to determine the positive and negative consequences of the interaction of local and global effects on mental health. For example, Becker et al. (2002) investigated eating disorders among Fijian female adolescents newly exposed to TV in their homes.

Focus on Research

Focus on Research

6.2 Methods used to study the influence of globalisation on behaviour

This section on globalisation has introduced you to a range of research methods that psychologists use to analyse how globalisation influences behaviour. One popular method is the use of the survey, as you read in the studies by Becker et al. (2002), Buchan et al. (2009) and Ogihara and Uchida (2014). Becker et al.'s was a natural experiment that also used interviews to obtain data which was analysed using thematic content analysis. Buchan et al. used the survey data to select participants to take part in their quasi-experiment.

6.3 Assessment Advice

QUESTION

STUDY

QUESTIONS (ERQs)

Discuss/evaluate/contrast/to what extent?

Methods used to study the influence of globalization on behaviour, OR the effects of local and global influences on the individual and the group OR cultural origins of behaviour and cognition OR cultural influences on individual behaviour.

Any two studies listed below.

The influence of globalisation on individual behaviour.

Becker et al. (2002),

Buchan et al.(2009) and Ogihara & Uchida (2014).

The effects of local and global influences on the individual and the group OR cultural origins of behaviour and cognition OR cultural influences on individual behaviour.

Becker et al.(2002), Buchan et al.(2009) and Ogihara & Uchida (2014).

Further Reading

The Pamoja Teachers Articles Collection has a range of articles relevant to your study of the sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour.

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