HL Options: Depth Studies - History of Africa and the Middle East
1: The ‘Abbasid dynasty (750-1258)
The fall of the Umayyads and the 'Abbasid Revolution; reasons for 'Abbasid defeat of the Umayyads, including the role of 'Abbasid military power; the consequences of the revolution; the shift of power from Syria to Iraq
Political, social and economic aspects of the first century of 'Abbasid rule
Religious aspects of 'Abbasid rule, the role of the Ulama
The impact of other civilizations on the 'Abbasids; the Sassanian heritage
Case studies: al-Mansur; Harun al-Rashid; al-Ma'mun
Science, culture, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam
Decline of the empire; breakdown of 'Abbasid authority; rifts and divisions; Mongol invasion
2: The Fatimids (909-1171)
Foundation of the dynasty; political, economic and social factors
Conquest of Egypt and the foundation of Cairo; reasons for, and impact of, the conquest
Fatimid claims to the caliphate: the 'Abbasids and Umayyads of Spain
Fatimid ideology and its historical impact; religious relations (Muslims, Coptic Christians, Jews)
Economic developments including trade within the Fatimid realm of influence
Height of the Fatimid Empire; government institutions; institutions of learning (Dar al-'Ilm)
Decline of the Fatimids: internal dissolution; external challenges
Case studies of two of the following: al-Mu'izz (953–975); al-Hakim (996–1021); al-Mustansir (1036–1094)
3: The Crusades (1095-1291)
Origins of, and motives for, the Crusades: religious and secular; the holy places; pilgrimage and preaching; theory and practice of jihad
The First Crusade (1096–1099); the Second Crusade (1145–1149), Third Crusade (1189–1192) and Fourth Crusade (1202–1204): causes; extent of success; consequences
Foundation of the crusader states: Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli
Role and significance of key individuals: Godfrey de Bouillon, Richard I of England, Nur al-Din, Salah al-Din (Saladin) and Baibars
Military aspects of the Crusades: tactics, major battles and weapons; Templars, Hospitallers, Assassins
Reasons for successes and failures of both sides throughout the period of the Crusades
Impact and importance of the Crusades in the Middle East and in the Byzantine Empire
4: The Ottomans (1281-1566)
Rise of the Ottomans: Anatolia and the Balkans
Effects of the foundation of the Ottoman Empire on Europe and Muslim lands
Rise of the Safavids and contest with the Ottomans
Ottoman expansion: reasons for; the conquests of Egypt and Syria; fall of the Mamluks—impact and significance
Military and administrative nature of the Ottoman Empire; changes to the Islamic world; Ottoman contribution to Islamic culture
Ottoman invasion and capture of Byzantium; reasons for, and consequences of, the fall of Constantinople (1453); its effect on transforming the Ottoman state
Case studies of two of the following: Mehmet II (1451–1481); Selim I (1512–1520); Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)
5: Trade and the rise and decline of African states and empires (800-1600)
Types of trade: trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt—importance of different routes and control over these; impact of trade on the rise and decline of empires; Indian Ocean trade in slaves, ivory, spices and textiles
Impact of trade on the spread of religion and culture: the Islamization of East and West Africa; influence of Catholicism in the Kingdom of the Kongo
Ghana Empire (c830–1235): causes of the rise and decline of the Ghana Empire; system of government; social and economic organization; importance of trade; the Almoravid jihad
Mali Empire (c1230–1600): causes of the rise and decline of the Mali Empire; social, economic and administrative reforms; military organization; importance of Islam; trade
Rise and expansion of the Kingdom of the Kongo to 1600: political, social and economic organization
Swahili city states: importance of the Indian Ocean trade in the rise and growth of the city states; emergence of a cosmopolitan Swahili culture
6: Pre-colonial African states (1800-1900)
Rise of the Zulu under Shaka; the Mfecane/Difaqane—social, political and economic causes and effects; rise of the Sotho under Moshoeshoe
Rise of the Sokoto Caliphate under Usman Dan Fodio, and its effects
Rise of the Niger Delta trading states: Nana and Jaja
Ethiopian unification and expansion under Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, Menelik II
Rise of the Mahdist state in Sudan
Case studies of the rise of two of the following: the Mandinka Empire under Samori Toure; the Lozi kingdom under Lewanika; the Ndebele kingdom under Mziklikazi and Lobengula; the Asante empire under Osei Tutu; the Unyamwezi under Mirambo; the Hehe state under Mkwawa
7: The slave trade in Africa and the Middle East (1500-1900)
Reasons for the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade from the 16th century: technological factors and the growth of maritime commerce; impact on the slave trade of plantation agriculture; existing practice of slavery in African societies; rivalries and warfare between African states
Reasons for the expansion of the East African slave trade from the late 18th century: existing slave trade between Arabia and the Swahili coast; expansion of the Sultanate of Oman into East Africa; rising international demand resulting from the ban on the Atlantic trade
Nature of the slave trade: its social and economic impact in Africa and the Middle East; role and significance of individuals
Causes of the decline of the Atlantic slave trade: industrialization and economic changes; role of the abolitionist movement; rise of legitimate commerce
Causes of the decline of the East African slave trade: humanitarian factors and the influence of missionaries; colonial expansion and the closing of the markets; decline of slavery in the Ottoman Empire
Impact and significance of anti-slavery Acts in the 19th century; including 1807 Slave Trade Act, 1833 Abolition of Slavery Act, 1885 Berlin Act
8: European imperialism and the partition of Africa (1850-1900)
Growth of European activity in Africa: opportunities presented by the decline of the Ottoman Empire; traders, missionaries and explorers; creeping colonization
Economic causes of partition: economic weaknesses in Europe; raw materials; search for new markets; role of chartered companies
Strategic causes of the partition: the sea route to the east; British actions in Egypt and South Africa, and the responses of other European powers
Other causes: national rivalry; humanitarian factors
African background to partition: military, technological and administrative weaknesses; political and cultural disunity; collaboration
German annexation: factors facilitating the annexation; the Berlin West Africa Conference and its impact
Activities of King Leopold II of Belgium and De Brazza in the Congo region
9: Response to European imperialism (1870-1920)
Factors influencing decisions to resist: determination to preserve independence; brutality and inflexibility of the colonizing power; political structures; military strength; access to firearms
Ethiopian resistance under Menelik II: reasons for success
Mandinka resistance to French rule: reasons for success and failure
Herero and Nama resistance in Namibia: reasons for failure
Cetshwayo and the conquest and destruction of the Zulu kingdom
The Asante Wars (1873, 1896, 1900): reasons for Asante resistance and British intervention
Factors influencing decisions to collaborate: pragmatism; willingness of the colonial power to negotiate; social, political and economic gains including protection; lack of alternative
Collaboration: Lewanika and Khama with the British
Resistance and collaboration in Buganda: Kabaka Mwanga and Apolo Kagwa, reasons for failure and success
10: Africa under colonialism (1890-1980)
British rule in Kenya: colonial administration; economic and social development to 1963
Tanganyika under German and British rule to 1961
Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia under British rule: economic and social development to 1965; the creation and collapse of the Central African Federation; Ian Smith and the Unilateral Declaration of Independence
Angola/Mozambique under Portuguese rule: economic and social development to 1975
Nigeria: direct and indirect rule; factors that promoted the choice of administrative system in Nigeria; economic and social development; regional rivalries; constitutional developments to 1960
Gold Coast: colonial administration; economic, social and political development to 1957
Senegal: colonial administration; economic, social and political development to 1960
11: 20th-century nationalist and independence movements in Africa
Angola: liberation war; Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) to independence in 1975
South-West Africa: South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) to independence for Namibia in 1990
Kenya: trade unions; Mau Mau; Jomo Kenyatta and Kenya African National Union (KANU) to 1963
Gold Coast to Ghana: Nkrumah and the Convention People’s Party (CPP) to independence in 1957
French West Africa: nationalism, political parties and independence in Senegal in 1960
Tanganyika: Tanganyika African National Union; Julius Nyerere to 1961
12: The Ottoman Empire (c1800-1923)
Challenges to Ottoman power in the early 19th century: Greek War of Independence; Muhammad Ali in Egypt
The Eastern Question: European challenges and Ottoman responses; Crimean War; causes and outcomes of 19th-century crises in the Balkans
Decline of Ottoman power in the Middle East and North Africa: Egypt, Libya, Algeria; Lebanon
Attempts at internal reform and modernizations: causes, aims and effects of Tanzimat reforms; Abdul Hamid—reaction and reform
Growth of the Committee of Union and Progress to 1908–1909; reforms of the Young Turks; Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)
Ottoman Empire in the First World War: reasons for entry; impact of war; rise of Ataturk and collapse of empire
13: War and change in the Middle East and North Africa 1914-1945
Allied diplomacy in the Middle East: McMahon–Hussein correspondence; Sykes–Picot; Arab Revolt; Balfour Declaration
Effects of Paris peace treaties: territorial and political impact; mandate system; British and French administration in Iraq, Transjordan, Syria and Lebanon
Egypt after the First World War: nationalism; emergence of Wafd Party; Declaration of Independence; British influence
Palestine mandate: economic, social and political developments; impact of Jewish immigration and settlement; British responses and policies
Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: aims and policies; impact on Turkish society; successes and failures
Case study on Iran, Saudi Arabia or a North African state: economic, political and social developments; western influences; attempts at modernization
14: Africa, international organizations and the international community (20th century)
League of Nations: Abyssinian Crisis (1934–1936); causes and consequences of the failure of the League of Nations to deal with Italian aggression
Organization of African Unity (OAU) and African Union (AU): objectives, structure, successes and failures
Regional organizations: East African Community (EAC) (1967–1977); Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS); Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC)/Southern African Development Community (SADC); successes and failures
Africa and the UN: Congo, Mozambique, Somalia and Rwanda: reasons for successes and failures; wider impact
UN specialized agencies: a case study of the impact of any two agencies
The Cold War and its impact on Africa: a case study of the impact on any two African countries
15: Developments in South Africa 1880-1994
Discovery of diamonds and gold: political, social and economic consequences
South African War (1899–1902): causes—economic, political, strategic; course and consequences; the Treaty of Vereeniging and developments leading to the Act of Union (1909)
Policies of Smuts and Hertzog (1910–1948); segregation, discrimination and protest
National Party: reasons for the election victory of 1948; nature and impact of apartheid policies of Malan; Verwoerd and Grand Apartheid: the Bantustan system
Resistance to apartheid: radicalization of resistance; the African National Congress (ANC); Sharpeville and the decision to adopt armed struggle; Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness movement; Soweto massacre; township unrest in the 1980s
International opposition to apartheid: the impact of the economic boycott
The end of the apartheid system: De Klerk’s lifting of the ban on the ANC; release of Mandela and his role in the transition to democracy; the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA); the 1994 elections
16: Social and cultural developments in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
Factors promoting and inhibiting the spread of Islam and Christianity in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
The African Independent Churches movement; reasons for the creation and growth of Africanist churches
Changing social and cultural values
Changing role of women
Social and cultural impact of technological developments
Impact of immigration and emigration
Developments in the arts: the impact of colonialism on art and culture
Developments in education
17: Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945-2000)
Origins of the state of Israel: post-war tensions and instability in the mandate; causes and effects of the 1948–1949 War
Arab–Israeli conflicts: Suez Crisis, Six Day War, 1973 War; effects of conflicts—occupied territories, intifadas, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO); attempts at peacemaking up to, and including, Camp David (2000)
Post-war Egypt: Nasser, Sadat, Mubarak—political developments; economic and social policies; Pan-Arabism and the United Arab Republic (UAR)
Post-war Iran: modernization and westernization under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi; western influence; White Revolution; origins and effects of the 1979 Revolution; post-revolution Iran and effects of the Iran–Iraq War
Lebanon: civil wars; outside interference and reconstruction; Confessional state; economic, religious and social tensions; growth of militias and the PLO
18: Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005
Causes of ethnic conflict, civil war and military intervention: including ethnic tensions, economic problems, destabilization by outside forces, inefficiency of civilian governments, ideology, and personal ambition
Impact of ethnic conflict, civil war and military intervention; impact of military rule
Social and economic challenges: disease, illiteracy, poverty, famine; neo-colonial economic exploitation
Establishment of single-party states; reasons for establishment, including personal ambition, failure of democracy, and need for effective government
Return to multi-party democracy in the 1980s and 1990s: reasons for successes and failures
Economic growth and development to 2005: reasons for growth, including political stability and multi-partyism; leadership; infrastructural development; investment; economic reforms
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